How Do I Put Music On My PSP?

Sony Playstation Portable or PSP has become very versatile in terms of its applications and functional approach. The initial thought of having a portable game console have paved the road of multi-tasking and multi-function console, it sure has out grown its creativity from creator. The PSP console is more than just a game consoles, it has the capability as a portable video & movie player, web browser, personal organizer, music player and more.

I'm going to share with you how do I put music on my PSP and making it my universal digital walkman. It is a very simple procedure to put any of your favorite music into PSP. Before we begin discussing how to download or transfer music on to the PSP, we must understand that PSP do not accept all forms or formats of music file. Depending on the version of firmware your PSP is loaded. Early version of PSP firmware can only playback mp3 music format and it does not support playback of WMA and WMV audio files, making it less appreciable. However much later, firmware of PSP is able to playback WMA and WMV audio files. To do that on any early version, the PSP firmware needs to be upgraded to playback WMA and WMV audio files directly from PSP. And even if your PSP are able to playback WMA and WMV audio files I would not recommend because of its file size compare to mp3 format.

Generally mp3 music or audio file format takes up far less storage space compare to any audio or music file format. To convert any audio file format is relatively a simple task as lots of mp3 file format converter programs are already available from the internet. You can find huge list of mp3 format converter from the search engine and most of them are capable of converting any music or audio file format to mp3. The procedure provided by most mp3 file format converter program are most dummy proofed. Hardly anyone will find any difficulties in using these programs.

Once you have converted you favorite music files to mp3 then you are ready to put music on PSP. To put music on PSP you first need to connect your PSP to your PC by using the USB cable. Next, you press "Home" button and follow by scroll to "Setting" using the left-right buttons. And finally you search for "USB Connection" and press the "X" button to enter your selection.

On your PC, it will begin to show a removable drive has been detected and mounted on "My Computer" window. Click and open the new removable drive and a folder named "PSP" will appear within the drive. Open the "PSP" folder and you should find "Music" folder from within it. If the "Music" folder does not exist, manually create it yourself.

Now you can begin to put your favorite music on PSP console. Simply drag and drop if you like or copy & paste your favorite music and store in this folder of the memory stick. Once you are finished with transferring or putting your music file onto PSP, press the "O" button on your Sony PSP console to exit your PSP from the USB connection. Unplug your Sony PSP from the USB connection and you can begin playback your mp3 music files and simply enjoy your music anywhere and anytime you want.
By.Marcus Rolland

Computer Virus

Over recent years, Computer

have become synonymous with viruses and viruses don't show any signs of disappearing any time soon. In recent news, LiveScience dot com reported that "Before the month is even done, April has set a record for virus e-mails."1 In the past, we would be comfortable in telling new computer users not to worry about viruses and that catching a computer virus is rare. Today, that would be some of the worst advice we could give anyone. As reported in countless news reports, computer viruses are rampant and they're extremely worrisome. This article will describe what viruses are and then point you in the direction of some rather unique protection and prevention.

In short, a computer virus is a software program designed to destroy or steal data. It attacks computers via distribution - often unknowingly - through email attachments, software downloads, and even some types of advanced web scripting. Viruses that destroy data are known as Trojan horses, viruses that explode their attacks are called bombs, and viruses that duplicate themselves are called worms. Some viruses are a combination of each, however they can be further identified according to where they're located on a computer.

A virus originating from the boot sector of a computer is a boot-sector virus and this nasty devil does its dirty work the moment a computer is turned on. A virus that attaches itself to (infects) other programs is a file virus and activates the moment that an infected program starts. File viruses may also be referred to as parasitic viruses, however should a virus work from both the boot-sector and from an infected program, the virus is then known as a multipartite virus.

Why viruses exist remains a mystery, however we had privy access to the mind behind a virus programmer who explained his motivation behind his destructive inclinations. Apparently, this person had a deep grudge against a popular online service which shall remain unnamed. In this hacker's mind, the online service failed to do a quality job in protecting children from online smut and as retaliation, he created and distributed a virus to as many file libraries of this service as he could. His intentions were to disable the computers of the online service's users so much that they wouldn't be able to connect for days. In his mind, the loss of connection meant loss of revenue for the online service.

Although the malicious code that this person generated may have worked for a small percentage of users, sufficed to say, the online service continued on and still exists today. Despite his motivation or intention, his efforts were null.

We wouldn't be surprised to learn if other motivations behind spreading viruses were similar to this person's, but that doesn't justify the damage that viruses do. Innocent people become pawns for the evil plans of others who've convinced themselves they're doing the "right" thing.

To protect a computer from getting a virus, or clean a virus from a computer system once

Optical fiber
An optical fiber (or fibre) is a glass or plastic fiber that carries light along its length. Fiber optics is the overlap of applied science and engineering concerned with the design and application of optical fibers. Specially designed fibers are used for a variety of other applications, including sensors and fiber lasers.

Single-mode fibers are used for most communication links longer than 550 metres (1,800 ft).
In 1952, physicist Narinder Singh Kapany conducted experiments that led to the invention of optical fiber. Modern optical fibers, where the glass fiber is coated with a transparent cladding to offer a more suitable refractive index, appeared later in the decade.[1]In the process of developing the gastroscope, Curtiss produced the first glass-clad fibers; previous optical fibers had relied on air or impractical oils and waxes as the low-index cladding material. Jun-ichi Nishizawa, a Japanese scientist at Tohoku University, was the first to propose the use of optical fibers for communications in 1963.[4][5] Nishizawa invented the graded-index optical fiber in 1964 as a channel for transmitting light from semiconductor lasers over long distances with low loss.[6]
In 1981, General Electric produced fused quartz ingots that could be drawn into fiber optic strands 25 miles (40 km) long.[8]
Attenuations in modern optical cables are far less than those in electrical copper cables, leading to long-haul fiber connections with repeater distances of 70–150 kilometres (43–93 mi). The first photonic crystal fibers became commercially available in 2000.[11]

Sejarah sistem Telekomunikasi

Sistem Telekomunikasi

Komunikasi

• Penyampaian informasi dari sumber ke penerima melalui media komunikasi
  

Komponen komunikasi:

• Sumber (suara manusia, speaker, & sumber bunyi lainnya)
  
• Penerima (telinga, mikrofon, dll)
  
• Media (udara, kabel)
  

Mengapa dibutuhkan teknologi telekomunikasi?

• Sebab:
  
  • Jarak antara sumber dan penerima sangat jauh
    
  • Dibutuhkan cara yang efisien untuk menyampaikan informasi dari sumber ke penerima, namun tanpa adanya informasi yang rusak/ hilang
    
  • Jenis informasi yang disampaikan bisa diklasifikasikan ke dalam beberapa jenis (suara saja, gambar saja, tulisan saja, atau kombinasi)
    
• Dalam Telekomunikasi:
  
  • Bagaimana informasi direpresentasikan?
    
  • Bagaimana informasi dikirimkan?
    
  • Bagaimana informasi diterima/ dikembalikan ke bentuk semula?
    
• Ketiga hal di atas menjadi pokok bahasan utama dalam teknologi telekomunikasi
  
• Sejarah dan Evolusi Jaringan Telekomunikasi
  

Sejarah Singkat Telekomunikasi

• 1837 - Samuel Morse exhibited a working telegraph system.
  
• 1843 - Alexander Bain patented a printing telegraph.
  
• 1876 - Alexander Graham Bell, invented the first telephone.
  
• 1880 - first pay telephone
  
• 1915 - first transcontinental telephone service and first transatlantic
  
• voice connections.
  
• 1947 - transistor invented in Bell Labs
  
• 1951 - first direct long distance dialing
  
• 1962 - first international satellite telephone call
  
• 1968 - Carterfone court decision allowed non-Bell equipment to
  
• connect to Bell System Network
  
• 1970 - permitted MCI to provide limited long distance service in
  
• competition to AT&T.
  
• 1984 - deregulation of AT&T
  
• 1980s - public service of digital networks
  
• 1990s - cellular telephones commonplace
  
• 2000s – multmedia/broadband communication
  

Sejarah (Versi Amerika Serikat)

• Telepon ditemukan Alexander Graham Bell, tahun 1876
  
• Mendirikan Bell Telephone Company, 1877. Gajinya $3000 setahun
  
• Patennya habis tahun 1894. Terjadi kompetisi, 6000 perusahaan dg 600.000 pelanggan
  
• Tahun 1900 menjadi AT&T
  
• Tahun 1913 AT&T harus menyediakan interkoneksi
  
• 1934 FCC (Federal Communications Commissions) didirikan
  

Sejarah (Lanjutan)

• Tahun 1984 AT&T (perusahaan senilai 140 triliun) dipecah pecah menjadi pabrikan (Lucent), penelitian (Bell Labs), Operator (Bell Atlantic dll), AT&T (SLJJ)
  
• Menyebabkan telekomunikasi menjadi bisnis. Kompetisi dan bukan monopoli.
  
• Contoh: Australia: 1991. Telstra dan Optus
  
• Indonesia: Undang Undang No. 36 tahun 1999, berlaku tahun 2000
  
• Telekomunikasi Pra Kemerdekaan
  
• 1856, telegraf antara Batavia-Buitenzorg, 20 tahun sebelum telepon ditemukan
  
• 1870, telepon dimulai, Tanjung Priok – Gambir
  
• 1881, konsesi swasta di Semarang / Surabaya
  
• 1896, interlokal Batavia – Semarang, Batavia Surabaya, Buitenzorg – Sukabumi
  
• PTT didirikan 20 September 1906
  
• SLI: 1931
  

Sejarah Telkom – Indosat

• Telkom (27 September 1945): Domestik
  
• Automatisasi sentral 1959-1965
  
• Telex 1961
  
• Microwave untuk SLJJ
  
• Satelit 1976. Negara ke 3 di dunia
  
• Indosat (10 November 1968): SLI. Dimulai dari perusahaan ITT
  
• 1980 Kabel laut Indonesia Singapura
  
• 1980 dibeli Indonesia
  

  Fase Perkembangan Telekomunikasi
  

• Telegraph & Telephone (19^th century)
  
• Satellite communications (1960s)
  
• Digital communications (1980s)
  
• Internet age (1990s)
  
• Wireless communications (1990s)
  
• Abad 21?
  
• Trends:
  
• dari wired menuju wireless,
  
• dari analog menuju digital,
  
• dari komunikasi Voice menuju komunikasi data
  

  Semiconductor Industry the foundation of IT (Information Technology)
  

• Vacuum tube – Early the 20th century (?)
  
• Transistor (Transfer resistor), ditemukan oleh John Bardeen, Walter Brattain, dan Willian Shockley di Bell Lab pada tahun 1947 (Physics Nobel prize winner in 1956)
  
• Integrated circuit, invented by Jack Kilby, TI, in 1959 (Physics Nobel prize winner in 2000)
  

Moore's Law

• When: 1965
  
• Who: Gordon Moore, co-founder of Intel.
  
• Dr. Moore was preparing a speech and made a memorable observation. When he started to graph data about the growth in memory chip performance, he realized there was a striking trend.
  
• What: Each new chip contained roughly twice as much capacity as its predecessor, and each chip was released within 18-24 months of the previous chip.
  
• An Analogy: If this trend were applicable to airline industry, the plane would cost $500, weigh a few pounds, travel around the world in 20 minutes.
  

Analyses

• Moore's minimum cost
  
• 1962 – 12 components/chip
  
• 1965 – 50 components/chip
  
• 1970 – 10% of the cost in 1965 per transistor
  
• 1975 – 65,000 components/chip
  
• The speed growth is faster than size reduction, because there has been a rapid increase in clock frequency.
  
• Kuzweil (1999) pointed out that the doubling of processing power started earlier:
  
• 1908 (Hollerith Tabulator)
  
• 1911 (Monroe Calculator)
  
• 1946 (ENIAC)
  
• 1951 (Univac I)
  
• 1959 (IBM 7090)
  

  CPU's Capacity Growth
  

• 
  

  Sejarah Industri Telekomunikasi
  

• Industri telekomunikasi modern dimulai pada tahun 1837 dengan ditemukannya telegraph oleh Samuel Morse
  
• Penemuan ini mendorong pengembangan infrastruktur telekomunikasi dan komunikasi hardware dan protokol
  
• Penemuan telepon oleh Alexander Graham Bell pada tahun 1876 dan pengembangan teknologi komunikasi wireless yang dilakukan oleh Guglielmo Marconi pada tahun 1890s menjadi awal terbentuknya industri komunikasi seperti yang ada saat ini
  

  Sejarah Industri Telekomunikasi (1950 an)
  

• Sebelum tahun 1950 an, perusahaan telepon dan telegraph telah mengembangkan fasilitas komunikasi jaringan dalam dunia industri
  
• Di Amerika Serikat, industri ini diatur oleh FCC (Federal Communication Commission) dan state-level public service commissions (PSCs) yang mengendalikan tarif dan layanan
  
• Lembaga regulasi (FCC dan PSC) memberikanhak eksklusif kepada perusahaan telepon untuk menghubungkan perangkat komunikasi ke jaringan
  
• Perusahaan telepon dipandang sebagai sebagai perusahaan Monopoli
  

  Sejarah Industri Tahun 1970-an
  

• Tahun 1970 an: INTI + LEN (BUMN), RFC (Swasta). Tumbuh karena pemerintah menggelar proyek Stasiun bumi Kecil (SBK), bagian dari Palapa
  
• Industri lain: CMI, EN, Citra, Nusa, Bakrie, Hariff, Telnic, Quasar
  
• Produk: Sentral kecil, telepon, catu daya, UPS, PCM …
  

History of Telecommunication Industry (1970s)

• Although development of databases, languages, operating systems, and hardware was strong from 1950s to 1970s, large-scale data communication systems did not emerge until the 1970s. This stimulated by three major developments:
  
• Large-scale integration of circuits reduced cost and size of terminals and communication equipment
  
• New software systems that facilitated the development of data communication networks
  
• Competition among providers of transmission facilities reduced the cost of data circuits
  

  History of Data Communication
  

• Table 1-2 highlights some of the major events in data communication history. Some of the most significant events were:
  
• The invention of the transistor in 1947
  
• The development of data link protocols during the late 1960s and early 1970s
  
• The development and subsequent proliferation of the microcomputer during the 1970s and 1980s
  
• The transformation of ARPAnet into the modern Internet during the 1980s and early 1990s
  

  History of Data Communication (Continued)
  

• The history of data communication is also punctuated by several major court battles including:
  
• The Hush-a-Phone case
  
• The MCI and AT&T battle over long-distance services
  
• The Carterphone case
  
• Over time, these court rulings led to AT&T divestiture and enhanced competition among communication carriers
  

Telegraph: Communication Using Electrons

• Between human beings
  
• Major milestones:
  
• 1827: Ohm's Law
  
• 1837: "workable" telegraph invented by Samuel Morse
  
• 1838: demonstration over 10 miles at 10 w.p.m.
  
• 1844: Capitol Hill to Baltimore
  
• 1851: Western Union founded
  
• 1868: transatlantic cable laid
  
• 1985: last telegraph circuit closed down
  
• Other important dates
  
• 1869: transcontinental railway
  
• 1876: Alexander Bell invented telephone
  

  Telepon
  

• Telekomunikasi interaktif antar manusia
  
• Suara Analog
  
• Transmitter/receiver terus menerus melakukan kontak dengan electronic circuit
  
• Arus listrik bervariasi dengan tekanan akustik
  

  Telephony Milestones
  

• 1876: Alexander Bell menemukan telepon
  
• 1878: Public switches diinstal di New Haven dan San Francisco, public switched telephone network (PSTN) telah lahir
  
• Orang dapat berbicara tanpa melalui kabel yang sama
  

  Telephony Milestones
  

• 1878: Direktori telepon pertama; Saluran White House
  
• 1881: Insulated, balanced twisted pair sebagai local loop
  
• 1885: AT&T dibentuk
  
• 1892: sentral telepon komersial otomatis yang pertama
  
• 1903: 3 juta telepon di Amerika Serikat.
  
• 1915: Saluran telepon transcontinental yang pertama
  
• 1927: commercial transatlantic commercial service yang pertama
  

Telephony Milestones

• 1937: Multiplexing diperkenalkan untuk panggilan antar kota
  
• Satu link membawa banyak percakapan
  

  Regulasi di Indonesia
  

• Dasar: Undang-Undang No. 36 th 1999 tentang Telekomunikasi
  
• Pemisahan Penyelenggaraan:
  
• Jaringan Telekomunikasi (mis: PT. Telkom)
  
• Jasa Telekomunikasi (mis: Internet Provider)
  
• Telekomunikasi Khusus
  
• Anti Monopoli ð Kompetisi.
  
• Fungsi Telekomunikasi: Komoditas, selain Utilitas.
  

Regulasi di Indonesia

• Keputusan Menteri menjelaskan detail.
  
• Badan Regulasi Telekomunikasi Indonesia (BRTI), 5 Januari 2004
  
• Pengaturan, pengawasan, pengendalian
  
• Masalah duopoli Telkom-Indosat: pricing model, kompetitif rule, interkoneksi, kode akses SLI, SLJJ
  
• Perangkat Yuridis
  

  Telekomunikasi adalah industri yang tumbuh pesat
  

  Operator			Produk	Teknologi		Jumlah Pelanggan		Sharing ( % )
  Telkomsel				GSM		35.6		55.6
  Indosat				GSM		15.9		24.8
  Excelcom				GSM		9.5		14.8
  Bakri				CDMA		1.6		2.5
  Mobile 8				CDMA		1.4		2.2
  Natrindo				GSM		-		< 0.5
  Sampurna				CDMA		-		< 0.5
  PSN				GSM/ AMPS SAT		-		< 0.5
  Tahun		Jumlah Pelanggan (x 1000 )			Pertumbuhan (%)		Teledensitas Seluler/100 pddk
  1996		563					0.3
  1997		916			62.7		0.5
  1998		1066			16.4.8		0.5
  1999		2155			102.2		1.0
  2000		3509			62.8		1.7
  2001		6394			82.8		3.1
  2002		11273			76.3		5.3
  2003		18494			64.1		8.6
  2004		30337			64.0		13.6
  2005		46910			54.6		21.1
  2006		54370			15.9		24.4

  
  

Telekomunikasi adalah industri yang tumbuh pesat

Ada 3 Pemain Utama Dalam Dunia Telekomunikasi

Operator

• Operator menyelenggarakan jasa dan jaringan telekomunikasi untuk umum
  
• Sambungan Tetap (fixed, + limited mobility)
  
• Telkom : sambungan lokal (monopoli s.d. 2010) dan SLJJ (s.d. 2005)
  
• Indosat : SLI (001, 008) (s.d. th. 2004)
  
• Bakrie Telecom, Esia (limited mobility)
  
• Sambungan Bergerak (mobile)
  
• Indosat (Satelindo + IM3) GSM 900, 1800
  
• Telkomsel GSM 900, 1800
  
• Mobile8 (Fren)
  
• Primasel (Lippotel, Surabaya)
  
• Lain-lain (Pager, Internet provider, …)
  

Regulator

• Fasilitator kompetisi bisnis
  
• Standardisasi perangkat
  
• Mengalokasikan frekuensi
  
• Mendefinisikan interkoneksi, misalnya antara Indosat dan Telkom
  
• Di Indonesia: Pemerintah (Ditjen Postel + BRTI)
  
• Regulasi dari luar negeri: perjanjian WTO, APEC, AFTA dll.
  
• Dasar: Undang-undang Telekomunikasi (UU No. 36 tahun 1999) !!!
  

Industri

• Industri menjual perangkat. Di dunia ada tiga kubu perangkat: Amerika, Jepang dan Eropa
  
• Amerika baru mulai menjual ke luar sekitar tahun 85 an
  
• AT & T
  
• Northern Telecom
  
• Jepang produknya lebih spesifik dalam standard
  
• NEC
  
• Fujitsu
  
• Eropa (ETSI) adalah pemain lama dalam telekomunikasi
  
• Siemens
  
• Alcatel
  
• Di Indonesia tidak berkembang: CMI, Telnic, Quasar, INTI, LEN Semua <10 industri. Nilai 90% pembelian ke industri luar negeri.
  

  
  

Sistem Telekomuniksai

•Penentuan Sirkit
•Sirkit gelombang radio selain harus memenuhi standar transmisi juga harus ada keseimbangan antara segi pembiayaan dan berbagai segi teknik,atas dasar ini dalam penentuan sirkit,spesifikasi perangkat-perangkat yang akan dipergunakan harus ditentukan secara rasionil.
•Gerisik Thermis
Gerisiki thermis adalah gerisik substantial yang timbul dari gerakan elektron di dalam tahanan,transistor,dll.serta tidak dapat dihindarkan di dalam sirkit perhubungan.

Dengan demikian perbedaan dalam gelombang pembawa yang disebabkan oleh gerisik thermis akan sebanding dengan kecepatan perputaran ini,demikian juga makin tinggi frekwensi dari kanal,akan lebih meningkat gerisik pada output dari demodulatornya,akhirnya dapat menimbulkan jenis gerisik delta
•Redaman propagasi pada ruang bebas
Agar dapat menentukan sirkit gelombang mikro yang sempurna,pertama-pertama yang sangat penting adalah menyadari dan mempelajari sepenuhnya keadaan ruang.Ruang tidak mempunyai pelindung di antara titik pancar dan terimanya dan tidak memberikan pengaruh khusus pada propagasi gelombang,dimana redaman propagasi menentukan dasar bagi penentuan jarak radio hop. Redaman propagasi di dalam ruang bebas hanya tergantung dari jarak radio hop dan panjang gelombang

•Meningkatnya gerisik thermis karena fading
•Berdasarakan segi struktur terjadinya Fading dapat diklasifikasikan dalam type-K, type-duct dan type scintilation.
•Distribusi medan apabila penyimpangan fluktuasi terjadi biasanya dinamakan “Releigh Distribution”.Dengan demikian meningkatnya volume gerisik thermis diramalkan sesuai dengan kemungkinan dimana releigh distribution type fading terjadi serentak di beberapa seksi.
•Sebenarnya hampir tidak diterima adanya hubungan erat antara terjadinya fading di setiap seksi,karena fading tergantung pada keadaan tanah,atmosfir dan ketinggian lintasan gelombang,dsb. Gambar diatas menunjukan kenaikan rata-rata gerisik thermis apabila terjadi Releigh fading.Apabila Releigh fading terjadi dalam satu seksi,harga rata-rata dari gerisik thermis 10 db lebih tinggi dari pada kalau tidak terjadi fading.Dengan demikian apabila Releigh fading terjadi dalam 4 seksi dan tidak terjadi dalam 46 seksi selebihnya,gresik thermis pada 50 seksi akan naik kira-kira 3 db dibandingkan dengan apabila semua seksi ada dalam ruang bebas.
•Gresik Intermodulasi
•Pada umunya Gresik intermodulasi berarti gresik kecacatan harmonis yang timbul oleh adanya crosstalk tidak linier didalam sistem transmisi keseluruhan dari base band input ke base band output dari sistem trunk telepon FM multichannel dan di anggap sebagai produk modulasi antar kanal .
•Gresik intermodulasi disebabkab adanya kecacat yang timbul dari berbagai pesawat yang dipergunakan dalam sistem transmisi secara keseluruhan,terkecuali kecacatan propagasi yang timbul di dalam lintasan propagasi selanjutnya,gresik intermodulasi di dalam FM dibagi Sbb:
ü Kecacatan tidak Linear
ü Kecacatan fasa dan amplitudo
üGresik intermodulasi yang disebabkan oleh Echo.

ü Kecacatan tidak linear
Gresik intermodulasi yang disebabkan oleh ketidak linearan timbul di dalam modulator dan demodulator, dan mengingat faktor kecacatan pada umumnya diukur dalam bentuk karakteristik diferensial dalam hal penyaluran sinyal multiplex,maka daya kecacatan tingkat kedua dan ketiganya dinyata oleh gmbr berikut.

ü Kecacatan fasa dan amplitudo
Pada umumnya kecacatan fasa dan amplitudo timbul meskipun tidak ada ketidak linearan karaktersitik,contohnya timbul suatu keadaan tanpa memperhatikan input maupun output level di dalam sirkitnya.Dan kecacatan ini timbul apabila derajat penguatan untuk frekwensi sinyal input tidak dapat ditentukan,atau apabila karakteristik fasa untuk frekwensi dari input sinyal tidak dalam hubungan yang linear.
Mengadakan analisa dengan menggunakan metode fourier,maka daya gresik yang disebabkan oleh kecacatan fasa dan amplitudo dalam hal penyaluran sinyal telepon multiplex,hasilnya dapat dilihat pada gmbr 1-4 dibawah ini

ü Gresik intermodulasi yang disebabkan oleh Echo
•Echo pendek: kecacatan gresik echo di dalam wave guide yang pendek dapat dihitung dengan persamaan karakteristik fasa.
•Echo panjang: Gresik akibat terjadinya echo yang panjang dapat dianalisa dengan adanya peningkatannya dari distribusi yang normal distribusi dari spektrum gelombang FM yang dimodulasikan dengan sinyal telepon multiplex besar dalam penyimpangan frekwensi efektifnya.